CONSTRUCTIVISM IN PRACTICE

Han and Bhattacharya (2001) assert that constructionism is built upon the foundations of the constructivist theory of jean Piaget that knowledge is actively constructed in the mind of the learner.  However, for the constructionist learning is not simply a mental construct, but must also include the creation of an artifact.  This artifact may be a physical but it could also be a digital one.

Generating and testing hypothesis is an instructional strategy that uses the constructionist learning principles.  My first impression of the strategy was that it dealt with the scientific process, however further reading led me to the conclusion that this is something that applies to other areas, and that teachers in other subject areas engage in it all the time without even realizing it. Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) identifies six processes by which learners can generate and test a hypothesis, namely systems analysis, problem solving, historical investigation, invention, environmental inquiry and decision making.  Inherent in each of these processes is that it is the student playing and active role in the generation and testing of the hypothesis, while the teacher simply plays the role of the guide on the side.  Three technological tools are explored for the purpose of generating and testing hypothesis including spreadsheet software, data collection tools and web resources.

Spreadsheets allow abstract concepts to come to life and provide greater opportunity for critical analysis and interpretation of data.  By using spreadsheets and a realistic scenario the learner makes his/her own determination about best choices while eliminating the tedious chore of calculating values.  This strategy allows the learner to focus on the objectives of the lesson rather than the mechanics of the activity thereby leaving more time for critical thinking and analysis of the data (Pitler et al., 2007).   The activity is learner-centered in that the students themselves generate and test their hypotheses; it is collaborative and involves the construction of an artifact to display their results.  Web resources such as simulation software also allow students to generate and test a hypothesis by allowing them to observe the outcome of a particular decision.   The simulation allows the students to manipulate as close to a real-world situation as they can and test the impact of their decisions.

This week we also explored project learning tools.  The webquest was of particular interest involving the development of projects using resources from the web.  Templates and examples available at www.webquest.org facilitate the easy and efficient formulation of webquest activities.  Again this fit directly into the constructionist realm as it involves the construction of knowledge by the learner through the creation of an artifact.  No longer is project based learning limited to physical constructs.  Technology has opened up the possibilities of this strategy to many other subject areas.

References

Han, S., and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved  from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

COGNITIVISM IN PRACTICE

Cognitive learning theorists postulate that for learning to occur, it is not enough to provide an external stimulus.  Their principle of learning centered upon the ability of the learners to make connections between their existing knowledge and the new material being presented to them.  For this connection to occur, the instruction should be well-organized and clearly structured, and the cognitive style of the individual must be taken into account (Smith, 1999).

Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn and Malenoski (2007) propose a number of instructional strategies that teachers can use for learning to occur using the cognitivist approach.  Chapter 4 examines the use of “Cues, Questions and Advanced Organizers”, while chapter 6 examines the use of “Summarizing and Note Taking” activities in building knowledge.

The use of cues, questions and advanced organizers helps students to activate prior knowledge, an essential principle for learning to occur. The authors encourage the use of word processing applications to create advance organizers for note taking by using the table function.   A two column table is created where the key terms or themes are listed in the first column and students fill in the relevant details pertaining to the item in the second column.  This helps the students to organize their thoughts and focus on the topic at hand (Pitler et al., 2007)).  The use of spreadsheets to create rubrics achieves the same objective of focusing the learner.  The chapter also explored the use of advance organizers to provide cues in the form of essential questions.  Cues are also given in the form of multimedia which helps the learner to activate prior knowledge and provide a mental model of the information.  It also supports the dual coding of information whereby the information is stored as both images and text which results in better retention (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).

In the chapter 6, I found the section on using summary frames most interesting.  Three types of summary frames were illustrated; the definition frame, topic-restriction-illustration frame and the problem/solution frame.  The frames force the students to focus on a particular issue by asking essential questions, thereby guiding the students’ processing of information.  Using multimedia to enhance and present summaries and notes also fits into the cognitive learning model as the students must summarize the information for it to fit into a short time frame.  Also Instructive was the section on blogs and wikis.  The use of blogs as a reciprocal teaching strategy was very interesting as it provided opportunity for scaffolding of information and feedback.

In the web video resource this week, we learned that for information to be processed into a learner’s short-term memory, it must by broken into manageable chunks and that long-term memories are stored in networks of information.  We also learned that information is better stored as images and texts (Laureate Education, Inc., 2011).  The strategies discussed all help the learner to organize information to make it more manageable, helps the learner to make connections with previous knowledge and make effective use of images, all principles supported by cognitive learning theory.

 

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, M. K. (1999). The cognitive orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.htm

BEHAVIORISM IN PRACTICE

 Behaviorists advocate a number of principles that must occur for learning to take place.  In the article “The Behaviorist Orientation to Learning” (Smith, 1999), and in the chapter on behaviorism in the on-line book “Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology” (Stanridge, 2002) the following principles emerge:

 ·         A change in behavior must occur for learning to take place as such learning is an active rather than a passive process. 

·         Behaviors change according to its consequence.  Positive reinforcement such as rewards is preferable to negative consequences such as punishment.

·         Consequences that occur immediately will have a greater impact on behavior than those occur later.

·         Frequent practice is essential for learning to take place.

An Instructional strategy that has emerged out of these principles is direct instruction which allows for the active engagement of learners with frequent assessment and feedback (Magliaro, Lockee and Burton, 2005).  Several computer aided software have been designed based on this model such as English Grammar 101 which also embed the principles of frequent practice, immediate feedback and positive reinforcement.

The strategy of reinforcing effort as described by Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski (2007) involve students using spreadsheet software to correlate their achievement to the effort exerted.  Every week , using a spreadsheet software like Microsoft Excel, students assess their effort using a rubric before a test, and then insert their test score after which they create a chart to help them analyze the data.  In this strategy the learner is actively engaged in the process, and immediate feedback is provided.  Other behaviorist principles are more sublime.  Deeper analysis by the student would be needed to correlate the connection between the individual effort categories and the changes in the grade.  However I believe it is a good strategy for students, especially those in high school.

Pitler et al. also discussed the use of word processing software, spreadsheet software, multimedia, web resources and communication tools in helping students get the most out of homework.  Multimedia and web resources are designed to provide the learner with immediate feedback, frequent practice and active engagement, while the word processing and spreadsheet application activates higher order thinking skills.  

The strategies outlined above all illustrate the importance of behaviorist learning theory in the teaching -learning process.  Adhering to its principles in the development of skills is very important, but what these strategies also illustrate is how these they can also be used to develop higher level cognitive skills as well.

References

Magliaro, S. G., Lockee, B. B., & Burton, J. K. (2005). Direct instruction revisited: A key model for instructional technology. ETR&D, 53(4), 41–54. 

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm 

Standridge, M.. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/